Exploring Family Structure Diversity Among Children in Families With Low Incomes
Over the last several decades, family composition in the United States has changed and more diversity is present in terms of family structure. Currently, children live in a wide range of family structures that differ according to the number of parents (e.g., two parents versus single parent) and types of parents (e.g., biological versus step) present, as well as the relationships between those parents (e.g., marriage versus cohabitation). Still other children live with no parents and instead reside with grandparents or other caregivers.
Research demonstrates that family structure is linked to child outcomes, but that these differentials in child well-being are substantively small. Family structure is a marker of children’s access to parental, economic, and social resources that, in turn, shape their well-being. Research also indicates that certain family forms—such as cohabitation—are not legally recognized, which may mean fewer formal and informal social supports for such families; this, in turn, could account for some of the differentials observed in children’s outcomes by family structure. For example, parents in married stepfamilies, cohabiting biological families, and cohabiting stepfamilies are less likely to pool their incomes together than those in married biological families, even though access to a parent’s cohabiting partner’s income would lift a substantial share of children living in cohabiting families out of poverty.
However, much research on children’s family structure fails to pay attention to these important nuances and overlooks many of the myriad intersections between parental type and parental relationship status. Rather, studies typically enumerate only the most common family forms, distinguishing among married, cohabiting, and single-parent families and sometimes delineating two biological parent versus stepparent families. Unpacking family structure reveals diverse family configurations among children in families with low incomes, which matters for children’s well-being. Programs that serve children and families should consider this diversity when making decisions about the individuals and families they serve, the types of programming they offer, and the degree to which this programming is inclusive of all families.
In this brief, we describe family structure variation among children living at or below 200 percent of the federal poverty line (or “families with low incomes”)—families that are most often served by a range of human and social service programs in the United States. Using data from the 2022 Annual Social and Economic Supplement Current Population Survey from IPUMS (CPS-ASEC), we unpack family diversity by examining family type, parent type, and union type (see Box 1 for definitions). We look at this diversity for all children in families with low incomes, and separately for children across three developmental periods: birth to age 5, ages 6 to 11, and ages 12 to 17.
The Marriage Strengthening Research & Dissemination Center (MAST Center) conducts research on marriage and romantic relationships in the United States and on healthy marriage and relationship education programs. As the MAST Center winds down, we are starting to include MAST content on childtrends.org.
Definitions of key terms and concepts
Family structure refers to children’s relationship to the parent or parent figures in their household and, where relevant, to the parents’ relationship to each other. We consider three dimensions of family structure: (1) family type, (2) parent/relationship type, and (3) parental union status.
Family type: We distinguish among four family types. In two-parent families, both parents have the same parental relationships with the child—biological or adopted. Stepfamilies are composed of one parent related to the child biologically or by adoption and one parent who is the resident partner or spouse of the biological/adoptive parent (i.e., stepparent).[1] In single-parent families, only one biological/adoptive parent is residing with the child. Finally, non-parent families are those in which no biological/adoptive/step parent is living in the household with the child.
Parent/relationship type: Parental relationship types are either biological, adoptive, or step. Non-parental relationship types include grandparent, other relative, non-relative, or foster.
Union type: Parental union type is determined by whether the parent(s)—or non-parental caregivers—are married, cohabiting, or single. In two-parent households, parents (or caregivers) can be married or cohabiting. All single-parent families are assumed to be single since there is no partner living with them in the household. We also distinguish between single-mother and single-father families.
The following sets of figures depict children’s family structure in 2022 across family types, parent/relationship types, and parents’ union types for all children from birth to age 18 (Section 1) and for children birth to age 5 (Section 2), children ages 6 to 11 (Section 3), and children ages 12 to 18 (Section 4) in families with low incomes. Panel A in each section shows children’s living arrangements across the four family types. Panels B and C build on Panel A to reveal additional layers of family structure diversity. Panel B additionally considers the parental or non-parental relationship type, in addition to family type. Panel C additionally considers parental (or non-parental) union type, in addition to family type.
1Children from birth to age 18
Figure 1A: Family Type of Minor Children Below 200 Percent of Federal Poverty Threshold, 2022
Figure 1A shows that two-parent families were the most common family type for children (44.6%), followed by single-parent families (37.7%), stepfamilies (13.2%), and families in which no parent is present (4.5%).
Figure 1B: Parent Type of Minor Children Below 200 Percent of Federal Poverty Threshold, 2022
When we add parent/relationship type to family type (Figure 1B), we see more complexity in the step- and non-parent family types.
- Stepfamilies: 11.6 percent of children live with their biological/adoptive parent and one stepparent. However, a small percentage of children lived with a biological parent and an adoptive parent (0.4%), suggesting that the stepparent had adopted the child. Finally, 1.3% of children lived with only their stepparent(s) (0.7% with one stepparent and 0.6% with two stepparents).
- Non-parent families: The largest group of children in this family type lived with a grandparent (but not a parent)—making up 2.7 percent of all children (and 61.0 percent of children in a non-parent family type). Small percentages of children lived with a non-relative (1.2%), some other relative (0.4%), or in foster care (0.2%).
Figure 1C: Parental Union Status of Minor Children Below 200 Percent of Federal Poverty Threshold, 2022
When we add union type to family type (Figure 1C), we see more complexity across all family types.
- Two-parent families: 36.6 percent of children lived with two married (biological or adoptive) parents, while 8.0 percent lived with two cohabiting (biological/adoptive) parents.
- Stepfamilies: 9 percent of children lived in a cohabiting stepfamily (similar to the percentage in a cohabiting two-parent family), while 4.6 percent lived in a married stepfamily.
- Single-parent families: 34.9 percent of children lived in a mother-headed single parent family, while 3.5 percent lived in a father-headed single parent family.
- Non-parent families: 2.5 percent of children lived with a single non-parent caregiver, while 2.0 percent lived with married (1.4%) or cohabiting (0.6%) caregivers.
2Children from birth to age 5
Figure 2A: Family Type of Children Under Age 6 Below 200 Percent of Federal Poverty Threshold, 2022
Figure 2A shows that two-parent families were the most common family type for children (53.7%), followed by single-parent families (34.2%), stepfamilies (9.4%), and families in which no parent is present (2.7%).
Figure 2B: Parent Type of Children Under Age 6 Below 200 Percent of Federal Poverty Threshold, 2022
When we add parent/relationship type to family type (Figure 2B), we see more complexity in the step- and non-parent family types.
- Stepfamilies: 8.0 percent of children lived with their biological/adoptive parent and one stepparent. However, a small percentage of children lived with a biological parent and an adoptive parent (0.2%), suggesting that the stepparent had adopted the child. Finally, 1.2% of children lived with only their stepparent(s) (0.7% with one stepparent and 0.6% with two stepparents).
- Non-parent families: The largest group of children in this family type lived with a grandparent (but not a parent)—making up 2.1 percent of all children (and 80.8 percent of children in a non-parent family type). A small percentage of children lived with some other relative (0.5%).
Figure 2C: Parental Union Status of Children Under Age 6 Below 200 Percent of Federal Poverty Threshold, 2022
When we add union type to family type (Figure 2C), we see still more complexity across all family types.
- Two-parent families: 40.2 percent of children lived with two married (biological or adoptive) parents, while 13.6 percent lived with two cohabiting (biological/adoptive) parents.
- Stepfamilies: 8 percent of children lived in a cohabiting stepfamily, while 2.0 percent lived in a married stepfamily.
- Single-parent families: 32.4 percent of children lived in a mother-headed single parent family, while 2.5 percent lived in a father-headed single parent family.
- Non-parent families: 1.3 percent of children lived with a single non-parent caregiver, while 1.4 percent lived with married (1.1%) or cohabiting (0.3%) caregivers.
3Children ages 6 to 11
Figure 3A: Family Type of Children Ages 6 to 11 Below 200 Percent of Federal Poverty Threshold, 2022
Figure 3A shows that two-parent families were the most common family type for children (44.5%), followed by single-parent families (37.8%), stepfamilies (13.9%), and families in which no parent is present (3.8%).
Figure 3B: Parent Type of Children Ages 6 to 11 Below 200 Percent of Federal Poverty Threshold, 2022
When we add parent/relationship type to family type (Figure 3B), we see more complexity in the step- and non-parent family types.
- Stepfamilies: 12.7 percent of children lived with their biological/adoptive parent and one stepparent. However, a small percentage of children lived with a biological parent and an adoptive parent (0.3%), suggesting that the stepparent had adopted the child. Finally, 0.9 percent of children lived with only their stepparent(s) (0.4% with one stepparent and 0.5% with two stepparents).
- Non-parent families: The largest group of children in this family type lived with a grandparent (but not a parent)—making up 2.9 percent of all children (and 76.3 percent of children in a non-parent family type). A small percentage of children lived with some other relative (0.9%).
Figure 3C: Parental Union Status of Children Ages 6 to 11 Below 200 Percent of Federal Poverty Threshold, 2022
When we add union type to family type (Figure 3C), we see still more complexity across all family types.
- Two-parent families: 37.8 percent of children lived with two married (biological or adoptive) parents, while 6.1 percent lived with two cohabiting (biological/adoptive) parents.
- Stepfamilies: 4 percent of children lived in a cohabiting stepfamily, while 4.8 percent lived in a married stepfamily.
- Single-parent families: 34.7 percent of children lived in a mother-headed single parent family, while 3.6 percent lived in a father-headed single parent family.
- Non-parent families: 2.7 percent of children lived with a single non-parent caregiver, while 1.6 percent lived with married (1.1%) or cohabiting (0.5%) caregivers.
4Children ages 12 to 17
Figure 4A: Family Type of Children Ages 12 to 17 Below 200 Percent of Federal Poverty Threshold, 2022
Figure 4A shows that single-parent families were the most common family type for children (41.0%), followed by two-parent families (36.0%), stepfamilies (16.1%), and families in which no parent is present (6.8%).
Figure 4B: Parent Type of Children Ages 12 to 17 Below 200 Percent of Federal Poverty Threshold, 2022
When we add parent/relationship type to family type (Figure 4B), we see more complexity in the step- and non-parent family types.
- Stepfamilies: 13.8 percent of children lived with their biological/adoptive parent and one stepparent. However, a small percentage of children lived with a biological parent and an adoptive parent (0.7%), suggesting that the stepparent had adopted the child. Finally, 1.7 percent of children lived with only their stepparent(s) (0.9% with one stepparent and 0.8% with two stepparents).
- Non-parent families: The largest group of children in this family type lived with a grandparent (but not a parent)—making up 3.1 percent of all children (and 45.3 percent of children in a non-parent family type). Small percentages of children lived with a non-relative (1.0%), some other relative (2.1%), or in foster care (0.6%).
Figure 4C: Parental Union Status of Children Ages 12 to 17 Below 200 Percent of Federal Poverty Threshold, 2022
When we add union type to family type (Figure 4C), we see still more complexity across all family types.
- Two-parent families: 32.1 percent of children lived with two married (biological or adoptive) parents, while 3.6 percent lived with two cohabiting (biological/adoptive) parents.
- Stepfamilies: 8.3 percent of children lived in a cohabiting stepfamily, while 7.0 percent lived in a married stepfamily.
- Single-parent families: 37.5 percent of children lived in a mother-headed single parent family, while 4.3 percent lived in a father-headed single parent family.
- Non-parent families: 3.9 percent of children lived with a single non-parent caregiver, while 3.0 percent lived with married (2.1%) or cohabiting (0.9%) caregivers.
Differences in Family Structure by Child Age
Figures 2 to 4 present children’s family type, parent type, and parents’ union status by age group (birth to age 5, ages 6 to 11, ages 12 to 17). These figures reveal that, as children get older, some children experience family transitions. Specifically:
- The proportion of children living with two biological or adoptive parents is less common among older children. For example, children ages 12 to 17 were 2.5 times more likely to not live with their parents (6.8%; see Figure 4A) than children under age 6 (2.7%; see Figure 2A).
- Similarly, as children age, living with a single parent becomes more common. A larger share of children ages 12 to 17 were living with only one parent (41.0%; see Figure 4A) than children under age 6 (34.2%; see Figure 2A). Being in a single-parent family was the most prevalent family type among children ages 12 to 17, as displayed in Figure 4A.
- Moreover, as shown in the second column of figures 2 to 4, the prevalence of cohabiting two-parent families decreases with children’s age, falling from 13.6 percent among children under age 6 (see Figure 1B) to 6.1 percent among children ages 6 to 11 (see Figure 3B), and then to 3.6 percent for children ages 12 to 17 (see Figure 4B).
- The percentage of married stepfamilies substantially increases as we analyze older age groups, rising from 2.0 percent for children under age 6 (see Figure 2C) to 6.6 percent for children ages 12 to 17 (see Figure 4C). The percentage of cohabiting stepfamilies also increases from 6.8 percent among children under age 6 (see Figure 2C) to 8.3 percent for children ages 12 to 17 (see Figure 4C).
Conclusion
This analysis illustrates the importance of looking beyond broad measures of family structure to capture the substantial variation in children’s family configurations by family type, parent type, and parental union type, as well as how these factors intersect. Although our results are cross-sectional—and, as such, provide only a point-in-time snapshot—they suggest that children’s family configurations are diverse and multidimensional. Programs should consider this diversity when thinking about the individuals and families they serve, the types of programming they offer, and the inclusiveness of that programming for all families.
Footnote
[1] In a minority of cases, the stepparent adopts the child, changing the parental relationship to adoptive. A small share of stepfamilies is composed of two stepparents.
Methods
Acknowledgements
Authors
About the MAST Center
Suggested Citation
Juteau, G., Brown, S. L., Manning, W. D., & Westrick-Payne, K. (2023). Exploring family structure diversity among children in families with low incomes. Child Trends. https://doi.org/10.56417/4048v2670h
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